Looking at Online Language Comprehension with the Visual World Paradigm: A Systematic and Cross-Linguistic Review of Three Decades

İpek Pınar Uzun; Alper Kumcu

doi:10.18492/dad.1692960

TR EN

Görsel Dünya Paradigması ile Süreç-içi Dil Anlamaya Bakış: Otuz Yıllık Sistematik ve Dillerarası Bir Derleme

Öz

Görsel Dünya Paradigması (GDP), süreç-içi sözcük ve tümce işlemeyi incelemek amacıyla psikodilbilimsel araştırmalarda en yaygın ve en bilgilendirici şekilde kullanılan deneysel paradigmaların başında gelmektedir. Tanenhaus ve diğerleri (1995) çalışmasından bu yana geçen otuz yıllık süreçte, çok sayıda araştırma, göz hareketlerinin görsel bilgilere yönelik bakışlarla çevrim-içi dil işlemleme arasındaki sistematik ve zamansal etkiye ilişkin önemli veriler sunduğunu göstermiştir. Bu sistematik derleme çalışması, çok yönlü bir deneysel paradigma olarak GDP’nin mevcut durumunu ortaya koymakta; son otuz yıla dönük bir değerlendirme yaparak, gelecekteki araştırmaları yönlendirebilecek önemli sorunları öne çıkarmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, GDP’nin konuşma anlama bağlamında dilsel işlevlerle ilişkisini dillerarası bir bakış açısıyla sistematik biçimde ele almayı amaçlamaktayız. Sonuçlar, alanyazının LMM ve GAMM gibi zamana duyarlı analizlerin benimsenmesiyle yöntemsel olarak gelişmiş olmasına karşın dilsel çeşitlilik konusunda önemli bir boşluğun var olmaya devam ettiğini ortaya koymaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Looking at Online Language Comprehension with the Visual World Paradigm: A Systematic and Cross-Linguistic Review of Three Decades

Abstract

The Visual World Paradigm (VWP) is one of the most widely used experimental paradigms in psycholinguistic research for studying online word and sentence processing. Over the past three decades, a wealth of research has shown that eye movements can reveal much about the systematic and temporal relationship between fixations on visual information and online language processing. The present systematic review takes stock of the current state of the VWP as an experimental paradigm, outlining critical issues that should guide future research. In this paper, we provide a systematic overview of the role of language functions using the VWP in speech comprehension from a cross-linguistic perspective. Our findings contribute to the VWP literature by evaluating existing methodological approaches and outlining directions for future research. The review reveals that although methodological sophistication has increased, especially through the adoption of methods such as LMMs and GAMMs, a significant gap remains in linguistic diversity.

Keywords

Destekleyen Kurum

Tübitak 1002-A Hızlı Destek Modülü

Proje Numarası

122K394

Etik Beyan

Bu makale bir sistematik review yazısıdır, bu nedenle etik kurul belgesinden muaftır.

Kaynakça

Abdel-Latif, K. H. A., Koelewijn, T., Başkent, D., & Meister, H. (2025). Assessment of speech processing and listening effort associated with speech-on-speech masking using the visual world paradigm and pupillometry. Trends in Hearing, 29, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/23312165241306091
Apfelbaum, K. S., Klein-Packard, J., & McMurray, B. (2021). The pictures who shall not be named: Empirical support for benefits of preview in the Visual World Paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 121, Article 104279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2021.104279
Allopenna, P. D., Magnusson, J. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998). Tracking the time course of spoken word recognition using eye movements: Evidence for continuous mapping models. Journal of Memory and Language, 38(4), 419–439. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1997.2558
Altmann, G. T. (2004). Language-mediated eye movements in the absence of a visual world: The 'blank screen paradigm'. Cognition, 93(2), B79–B87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2004.02.005
Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (1999). Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition, 73(3), 247–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00059-1
Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (2004). Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating the Mapping between Language and the Visual World. In J. M. Henderson & F. Ferreira (Eds.), The interface of language, vision, and action: Eye movements and the visual world (pp. 347–386). Psychology Press.
Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (2007). The real-time mediation of visual attention by language and world knowledge: Linking anticipatory (and other) eye movements to linguistic processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 57(4), 502–518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2006.12.004
Altmann, G. T. M., & Kamide, Y. (2009). Discourse-mediation of the mapping between language and the visual world: eye movements and mental representation. Cognition, 111(1), 55–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.12.005

Alzahrani, A. (2025). The predictive processing of number information in L1 and L2 Arabic speakers. Languages, 10(2), Article 25. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10020025
Arias-Trejo, N., & Plunkett, K. (2010). The effects of perceptual similarity and category membership on early word-referent identification. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 105(1-2), 63–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2009.10.002
Arnold, J. E., Eisenband, J. G., Brown-Schmidt, S., & Trueswell, J. C. (2000). The rapid use of gender information: Evidence of the time course of pronoun resolution from eye-tracking. Cognition, 76(1), B13–B26. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(00)00073-1
Arnold, J. E., Tanenhaus, M. K., Altmann, R. J., & Fagnano, M. (2004). The old and the, uh, new: Disfluency and reference resolution. Psychological Science, 15(9), 578-582. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00723.x
Arslan, S., Bastiaanse, R., & Felser, C. (2015). Looking at the evidence in visual world: Eye-movements reveal how bilingual and monolingual Turkish speakers process grammatical evidentiality. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01387
Ataman, E., Çağlar, O. C., & Kırkıcı, B. (2021). Dilbilim araştırmalarında açık bilim. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 32(2), 149–175. https://doi.org/10.18492/dad.936072
Bao, W., Arnhold, A., & Järvikivi, J. (2024). Phonology, homophony, and eyes-closed rest in Mandarin novel word learning: An eye-tracking study in adult native and non-native speakers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 45, 213–242. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716424000031
Barr, D. J. (2008). Pragmatic expectations and linguistic evidence: Listeners anticipate but do not integrate common ground. Cognition, 109(1), 18–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.005
Barr, D. J., & Seyfeddinipur, M. (2010). The role of fillers in listener attributions for speaker disfluency. Language and Cognitive Processes, 25(4), 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960903047122
Belke, E., & Meyer, A. S. (2007). Single and multiple object naming in healthy ageing. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22(8), 1178–1211. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960701461541
Berghoff, R., & Bylund, E. (2024). L2 activation during L1 processing is increased by exposure but decreased by proficiency. International Journal of Bilingualism, 28(3), 555–569. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069231175270
Bramlett, A. A., & Wiener, S. (2025). Individual differences modulate prediction of Italian words based on lexical stress: a close replication and LASSO extension of Sulpizio and McQueen (2012). Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 9, 55–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-024-00162-6
Branigan, H. P., Pickering, M. J., & Cleland, A. A. (2000). Syntactic co-ordination in dialogue. Cognition, 75(2), B13–B25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00081-5
Brown, M., Salverda, A. P., Gunlogson, C., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2015). Interpreting prosodic cues in discourse context. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 30(1-2), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690965.2013.862285
Brown-Schmidt, S. (2009). Partner-specific interpretation of maintained referential precedents during interactive dialog. Journal of Memory and Language, 61(2), 171–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2009.04.003
Brown-Schmidt, S., & Konopka, A. E. (2008). Little houses and casas pequeñas: Message formulation and syntactic form in unscripted speech with speakers of English and Spanish. Cognition, 109(2), 274–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.011
Brown-Schmidt, S., Byron, D. K., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2004). That's not it and it’s not that: The role of conceptual composites in in-line reference resolution. In M. Carreiras & C. Clifton Jr. (Eds.), On-line sentence processing: ERPS, eye movements and beyond (pp. 2009−2228). Psychology Press.
Brown-Schmidt, S., Byron, D. K., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2005). Beyond salience: Interpretation of personal and demonstrative pronouns. Journal of Memory and Language, 53(2), 292–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2005.03.003
Brown-Schmidt, S., Gunlogson, C., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2008). Addressees distinguish shared from private information when interpreting questions during interactive conversation. Cognition, 107(3), 1122–1134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.11.005
Bruggeman, L., & Cutler, A. (2024). Lexical recognition processes in L2-dominant bilingualism. Frontiers in Language Sciences, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/flang.2024.1275435
Bruggeman, L., Kidd, E., Nordlinger, R., & Cutler, A. (2025). Incremental processing in a polysynthetic language (Murrinhpatha). Cognition, 257, Article 106075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2025.106075
Burness, P. A., McMullin, K., & Zamnuer, T. (2019). The role of long-distance phonological processes in spoken word recognition: A preliminary investigation. Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics, 41(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.33137/twpl.v41i1.32756
Caldas, V. G. (2025). Prosody and sentence processing in Brazilian Portuguese: A visual world paradigm study. Revista da Abralin, 23(2), 161–194. https://doi.org/10.25189/rabralin.v23i2.2230
Cavicchio, F., Melcher, D., & Poesio, M. (2014). The effect of linguistic and visual salience in visual world studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00176
Carreiras, M., Carriedo, N., Alonso, M. A., & Fernández, A. (1997). The role of verb tense and verb aspect in the foregrounding of information during reading. Memory & Cognition, 25(4), 438–446. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03201120
Chambers, C. G., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Magnusson, J. S. (2004). Actions and affordances in syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(3), 687–696. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.3.687
Chen, K. K., Johansen, I. M., & Chow, W.-Y. (2025). Revising noun predictions based on English measure phrases: evidence from visual-world eye-tracking. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 40(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2024.2399111
Christianson, K., Hollingworth, A., Halliwell, J. F., & Ferreira, F. (2001). Thematic roles assigned along the garden path linger. Cognitive Psychology, 42(4), 368–407. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.2001.0752
Coco, M. I., & Keller, F. (2015). Integrating mechanisms of visual guidance in naturalistic language production. Cognitive Processing, 16(2), 131–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-014-0642-0
Coco, M. I., Keller, F., & Malcolm, G. L. (2016). Anticipation in real‐world scenes: The role of visual context and visual memory. Cognitive Science, 40(8), 1995–2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12313
Cooper, R. M. (1974). The control of eye fixation by the meaning of spoken language: A new methodology for the real-time investigation of speech perception, memory, and language processing. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 84–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90005-X
Corps, R. E., Brooke, C., & Pickering, M. J. (2022). Prediction involves two stages: Evidence from visual-world eye-tracking. Journal of Memory and Language, 122, Article 104298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2021.104298
Cunnings, I., Fotiadou, G., & Tsimpli, I. (2017). Anaphora resolution and reanalysis during L2 sentence processing: Evidence from the Visual World Paradigm. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(4), 621–652. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26331046
Cutler, A., Weber, A., & Otake, T. (2006). Asymmetric mapping from phonetic to lexical representations in second-language listening, Journal of Phonetics, 34(2), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2005.06.002
Dahan, D., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2004). Continuous mapping from sound to meaning in spoken-language comprehension: immediate effects of verb-based thematic constraints. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(2), 498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.2.498
Dahan, D., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2005). Looking at the rope when looking for the snake: Conceptually mediated eye movements during spoken-word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(3), 453–459. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193787
Dahan, D., Magnusson, J. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2001a). Time course of frequency effects in spoken-word recognition: Evidence from eye movements. Cognitive Psychology, 42(4), 317–367. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.2001.0750
Dahan, D., Magnusson, J. S., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Hogan, E. M. (2001b). Subcategorical mismatches and the time course of lexical access: Evidence for lexical competition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16(5-6), 507–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960143000074
Dahan, D., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Chambers, C. G. (2002). Accent and reference resolution in spoken-language comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 47(2), 292–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00001-3
Dailey, M. M., Straboni, C., & Peperkamp, S. (2023). Using allophonic variation in L2 word recognition: French listeners’ processing of English vowel nasalization. Second Language Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583231181472
Degen, J., & Pophristic, S. (2023). The role of production expectations in visual world paradigm linking hypotheses. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 44. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7dv5142s
Degen, J., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2016). Availability of alternatives and the processing of scalar implicatures: A visual world eye-tracking study. Cognitive Science, 40(1), 172–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12227
Desmeules-Trudel, F., & Zamuner, T. S. (2023). Spoken word recognition in a second language: The importance of phonetic details. Second Language Research, 39(2), 333–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583211030604
Duñabeitia, J. A., Avilés, A., Afonso, O., Scheepers, C., & Carreiras, M. (2009). Qualitative differences in the representation of abstract versus concrete words: Evidence from the visual-world paradigm. Cognition, 110(2), 284–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.11.012
Dussias, P. E., Valdés Kroff, J. R., Guzzardo Tamargo, R. E., & Gerfen, C. (2013). When Gender and Looking Go Hand in Hand: Grammatical Gender Processing in L2 Spanish. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35(2), 353–387. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263112000915
Ellert, M. (2013). Resolving ambiguous pronouns in a second language: A visual-world eye-tracking study with Dutch learners of German. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 51(2), 171–197. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2013-0008
Engelhardt, P. E., Bailey, K. G., & Ferreira, F. (2006). Do speakers and listeners observe the Gricean Maxim of Quantity? Journal of Memory and Language, 54(4), 554–573.
Farmer, T. A., Cargill, S. A., & Spivey, M. J. (2007). Gradiency and visual context in syntactic garden-paths. Journal of Memory and Language, 57(4), 570–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.04.003
Fallon, J., & Pylkkänen, L. (2024). Language at a glance: How our brains grasp linguistic structure from parallel visual input. Science Advances, 10(42), Article eadr9951. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr9951
Farris-Trimble, A., & McMurray, B. (2018). Morpho-phonological regularities influence the dynamics of real-time word recognition: Evidence from artificial language learning. Laboratory Phonology, 9(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.5334/labphon.41
Fernandez, L. B., Engelhardt, P. E., Patarroyo, A. G., & Allen, S. E. (2020). Effects of speech rate on anticipatory eye movements in the visual world paradigm: Evidence from aging, native, and non-native language processing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 73(12), 2348–2361. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820948019
Ferreira, F., & Clifton, C. (1986). The Independence of Syntactic Processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 348–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(86)90006-9
Ferreira, F., Bailey, K. G., & Ferraro, V. (2002). Good-enough representations in language comprehension. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(1), 11–15. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182754
Fotiadou, G., Muñoz, A., & Tsimpli, I. (2020). Anaphora resolution and word-order across adulthood: Ageing effects on online listening comprehension. Glossa: A journal of general linguistics, 5(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.5334/gjgl.997
Frazier, L., & Rayner, K. (1982). Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 14(2), 178–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(82)90008-1
Freeman, M. R., & Marian, V. (2022). Visual word recognition in bilinguals: Eye-tracking evidence that L2 proficiency impacts access of L1 phonotactics. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 44(3), 759–787. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226312100053X
Frenck-Mestre, C., Kim, S. K., Choo, H., Ghio, A., Herschensohn, J., & Koh, S. (2019). Look and listen! The online processing of Korean case by native and non-native speakers, Language, Cognition, and Neuroscience, 34(3), 385–404, https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2018.1549332
Fuchs, Z. (2021). Facilitative use of grammatical gender in Heritage Spanish. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 12(6), 845–871. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.20024.fuc
Fuchs, Z. (2023). Processing of grammatical gender agreement morphemes in Polish: evidence from the Visual World Paradigm. Morphology, 34, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-023-09418-3
Fuchs, Z., & Sekerina, I. A. (2025). New evidence for the role of morphological markedness of gender agreement cues in monolingual and heritage-bilingual facilitative processing. In Essays in Honor of Maria Polinsky. University of California. https://doi.org/10.7280/S97W697F
Ge, H., Mulders, I., Kang, X., Chen, A., & Yip, V. (2021). Processing focus in native and non-native speakers of English: An eye-tracking study in the visual world paradigm. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(4), 1057–1088. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716421000230
Gleitman, L. R., January, D., Nappa, R., & Trueswell, J. C. (2007). On the give and take between event apprehension and utterance formulation. Journal of Memory and Language, 57(4), 544–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2007.01.007
Gómez Vidal, B. (2024). Processing argument structure: Eye-tracking evidence from Spanish native speakers in the visual world paradigm [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU).
Gregg, J., Inhoff, A. W., & Li, X. (2023). Lexical competition influences correct and incorrect visual word recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 76(5), 1011–1025. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218221102878
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole, & J. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics: Speech acts (pp. 41–58). Academic Press.
Grüter, T., Lew-Williams, C., & Fernald, A. (2012). Grammatical gender in L2: A production or a real-time processing problem? Second Lang. Res., 28(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312437990
Hadar, B., Skrzypek, J. E., Wingfield, A., & Ben-David, B. M. (2016). Working memory load affects processing time in spoken word recognition: Evidence from eye-movements. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 10, 221. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00221
Han, C. H., Moulton, K., Block, T., Gendron, H., & Nederveen, S. (2021). Pronouns are as sensitive to structural constraints as reflexives in early processing: Evidence from visual world paradigm eye-tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 611466. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.611466
Henry, N., Hopp, H., & Jackson, C. N. (2017). Cue additivity and adaptivity in predictive processing. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 32(10), 1229–1249. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2017.1327080
Hert, R., Järvikivi, J., & Arnhold, A. (2024). The importance of linguistic factors: He likes subject referents. Cognitive Science, 48(4), Article e13436. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.13436
Hintz, F., Meyer, A. S., & Huettig, F. (2017). Predictors of verb-mediated anticipatory eye movements in the visual world. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43(9), 1352–1374. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000388
Hintz, F., Voeten, C. C., Dobó, D., Lukics, K. S., & Lukács, Á. (2024). The role of general cognitive skills in integrating visual and linguistic information during sentence comprehension: individual differences across the lifespan. Scientific Reports, 14, Article 17797. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68674-3
Hopp, H. (2013). Grammatical gender in adult L2 acquisition: Relations between lexical and syntactic variability. Second Lang. Res., 29(1), 33–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312461803
Hopp, H., & Lemmerth, N. (2016). Lexical and syntactic congruency in L2 predictive gender processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(1), 171–199. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263116000437
Huang, Y. T., & Snedeker, J. (2009). Online interpretation of scalar quantifiers: Insight into the semantics-pragmatics interface. Cognitive Psychology, 58(3), 376–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2008.09.001
Huang, Y. T., & Snedeker, J. (2020). Evidence from the visual world paradigm raises questions about unaccusativity and growth curve analyses. Cognition, 200, 104251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104251
Huettig, F., Quinlan, P. T., McDonald, S. A., & Altmann, G. T. (2006). Models of high dimensional semantic space predict language-mediated eye movements in the visual world. Acta Psychologica, 121(1), 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.06.002
Huettig, F., Olivers, C. N. L., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2011). Looking, language, and memory: Bridging research from the visual world and visual search paradigms. Acta psychologica, 137(2), 138–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.07.013
Huettig, F., Rommers, J., & Meyer, A. S. (2011). Using the visual world paradigm to study language processing: A review and critical evaluation. Acta Psychologica, 137(2), 151–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.11.003
Huettig, F., & Guerra, E. (2019). Effects of speech rate, preview time of visual context, and participant instructions reveal strong limits on prediction in language processing. Brain research, 1706, 196–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2018.11.013
Ito, A., & Knoeferle, P. (2023). Analysing data from the psycholinguistic visual-world paradigm: Comparison of different analysis methods. Behavior Research Methods, 55(7), 3461–3493. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-022-01969-3
Jesse, A., Poellmann, K., & Kong, Y. Y. (2017). English listeners use suprasegmental cues to lexical stress early during spoken-word recognition. Journal of speech, language, and hearing research: JSLHR, 60(1), 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-H-15-0340
Johannessen, J. B. et al. (2024). Cross-linguistic effects in grammatical gender assignment and predictive processing in L1 Greek, L1 Russian, and L1 Turkish speakers of Norwegian as a second language. Second Language Research, 41(1), 217–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583241227709
Kaiser, E., & Trueswell, J. C. (2008). Interpreting pronouns and demonstratives in Finnish: Evidence for a form-specific approach to reference resolution. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(5), 709–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960701771220
Kamide, Y., Altmann, G. T. M., & Haywood, S. L. (2003). The time course of prediction in incremental sentence processing: Evidence from anticipatory eye movements. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 133−156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00023-8
Kamide, Y., Scheepers, C., & Altmann, G. T. M. (2003). Integration of syntactic and semantic information in predictive processing: Cross-linguistic evidence from German and English. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 32, 37−55. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021933015362
Kaplan, M. J., Raju, A., & Arunachalam, S. (2021). Real-time processing of event descriptions for partially- and fully-completed events: Evidence from the visual world paradigm. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 6(1),118–132. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v6i1.4954
Karaca, F., Brouwer, S., Unsworth, S., & Huettig, F. (2024). Morphosyntactic predictive processing in adult heritage speakers: effects of cue availability and spoken and written language experience. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 39(1), 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2023.2254424
Kırcalı, C. E., Uzun, İ. P., & Aydın, Ö. (2021). Syntactic and prosodic processing of quantifier ambiguity in Turkish. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Turkic and Languages in Contact with Turkic, 6, 5066. Linguistic Society of America (LSA). https://doi.org/10.3765/ptu.v6i1.5066
Kim, H., & Grüter, T. (2021). Predictive processing of implicit causality in a second language: A visual-world eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 43(1), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000443
Kim, S. J., & Xiang, M. (2024). Encoding discourse structure information during language comprehension: Evidence from web-based visual world paradigm experiments. In L. K. Samuelson, S. L. Frank, M. Toneva, A. Mackey, & E. Hazeltine (Eds.), Proceedings of the 46th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. University of California. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3m93r04n
Knoeferle, P., & Crocker, M. W. (2006). The coordinated interplay of scene, utterance, and world knowledge: Evidence from eye tracking. Cognitive Science, 30(3), 481–529. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_65
Kong, Y. Y., & Jesse, A. (2017). Low-frequency fine-structure cues allow for the online use of lexical stress during spoken-word recognition in spectrally degraded speech. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 141(1), 373. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4972569
Köhne-Fuetterer, J., Drenhaus, H., Delogu, F., & Demberg, V. (2021). The online processing of causal and concessive discourse connectives. Linguistics, 59(2), 417–448. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling-2021-0011
Kuchinsky, S. E., Bock, K., & Irwin, D. E. (2011). Reversing the hands of time: Changing the mapping from seeing to saying. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37(3), 748–756. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022637
Kumcu, A., & Thompson, R. L. (2020). Less imageable words lead to more looks to blank locations during memory retrieval. Psychological Research, 84(3), 667–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1084-6
Kumcu, A., & Thompson, R. L. (2022). Remembering spatial words: Sensorimotor simulation affects verbal recognition memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75(9), 1694–1710. https://doi.org/10.1177/17470218211059011
Kutlu, E., Kin-Packard, J., Jeppsen, C., Tomblin, J. B., & McMurray, B. (2024). The development of real-time spoken and written word recognition derives from changes in ability, not maturation. Cognition, 251, Article 105899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105899
Li, X., & Qu, Q. (2024). Verbal working memory capacity modulates semantic and phonological prediction in spoken comprehension. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 31(1), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02348-5
Loerts, H., Wieling, M., & Schmid, M. S. (2013). Neuter is not common in Dutch: Eye movements reveal asymmetrical gender processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 42, 551–570. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-012-9234-2
Lundquist, B., & Vangsnes, Ø. (2018). Language separation in bidialectal speakers: Evidence from eye tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01394
MacDonald, M. C., Pearlmutter, N. J., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1994). The lexical nature of syntactic ambiguity resolution. Psychological Review, 101(4), 676–703. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.101.4.676
Mirman, D., Magnuson, J.S., Estes, K.G., Dixon, J.A. (2008). The link between statistical segmentation and word learning in adults. Cognition, 108(1), 271–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.02.003
Magnuson, J. S. (2019). Fixations in the visual world paradigm: Where, when, why? Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 3(3),1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-019-00035-3
Malarski, K., Jankowiak, K., & Dziubalska-Kołaczyk, K. (2025). Dialect use and style-shifting in the speech of Polish migrants in Norway: Acquisition of Norwegian (L3). In K. Jankowiak, M. Połczynska-Bletsos, & K. Dziubalska-Kołaczyk (Eds.), From sub-lexical to discourse-level effects in bi- and multilingual language processing [Editorial]. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, Article 1558057. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1558057
Marquis, A., Al Kaabi, M., Leung, T., & Boush, F. (2020). What the eyes hear: An eye-tracking study on phonological awareness in Emirati Arabic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00452
McClelland, J. L., & Elman, J. L. (1986). The TRACE model of speech perception. Cognitive Psychology, 10, 1–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(86)90015-0
McMurray, B., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Aslin, R. N. (2002). Gradient effects of within-category phonetic variation on lexical access. Cognition, 86(2), B33–B42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00157-9
McMurray, B., Tanenhaus, M. K., & Aslin, R. N. (2009). Within-category VOT affects recovery from "lexical" garden-paths: Evidence against phoneme-level inhibition. Journal of Memory and Language, 60(1), 65–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.07.002
McMurray, B. (2023). I’m not sure that curve means what you think it means: Toward a [more] realistic understanding of the role of eye-movement generation in the Visual World Paradigm. Psychon Bull Rev, 30, 102–146. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-022-02143-8
McQueen, J. M., & Viebahn, M. C. (2007). Tracking recognition of spoken words by tracking looks to printed words. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(5), 661–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210601183890
Minor, S., Mitrofanova, N., Guajardo, G., Vos, M., & Ramchand, G. (2023). Aspect processing across languages: A visual world eye-tracking study. Front. Lang. Sci., 1(1052205). https://doi.org/10.3389/flang.2022.1052205
Mulders, I., & Szendrői, K. (2016). Early association of prosodic focus with alleen 'only': Evidence from eye movements in the visual-world paradigm. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00150
Müller, G., Bodnár, E., Skopeteas, S., & Kröger, J. M. (2021). On the impact of case and prosody on thematic role disambiguation: An eye-tracking study on Hungarian. Language and Speech, 64(4), 930–961. https://doi.org/10.1177/0023830920974709
Novick, J. M., Thompson-Schill, S. L., & Trueswell, J. C. (2008). Putting lexical constraints in context into the visual-world paradigm. Cognition, 107(3), 850–903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.011
Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, 71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Perdomo, M., & Kaan, E. (2021). Prosodic cues in second-language speech processing: A visual world eye-tracking study. Second Language Research, 37(2), 349–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658319879196
Pozniak, C., Hemforth, B., & Scheepers, C. (2018). Cross-Domain Priming from Mathematics to Relative-Clause Attachment: A Visual-World Study in French. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 2056. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02056
Prystauka, Y., Altmann, G. T. M., & Rothman, J. (2024). Online eye tracking and real-time sentence processing: On opportunities and efficacy for capturing psycholinguistic effects of different magnitudes and diversity. Behavior Research Methods, 56(6), 3504–3522. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02176-4
Rehrig, G., Barker, M., Peacock, C.E. et al. (2022). Look at what I can do: Object affordances guide visual attention while speakers describe potential actions. Atten Percept Psychophys, 84, 1583–1610. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-022-02467-6
Runner, J. T., Sussman, R. S., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2006). Processing reflexives and pronouns in picture noun phrase. Cognitive Science, 30(2), 193–241. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0000_58
Özsoy, O., Çiçek, B., Özal, Z., Gagarina, N., & Sekerina, I. A. (2023). Turkish-German heritage speakers’ predictive use of case: webcam-based vs. in-lab eye-tracking. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1155585. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1155585
Salverda, A. P., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2010). Tracking the time course of orthographic information in spoken-word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(5), 1108–1117. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019901
Salverda, A. P., Brown, M., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2011). A goal-based perspective on eye movements in visual world studies. Acta psychologica, 137(2), 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.09.010
Salverda, A. P., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2017). The Visual World Paradigm. In Annette M. B. de Groot and Peter Hagoort (Eds). Research methods in psycholinguistics and the neurobiology of language: A practical guide (pp. 89–110). Wiley-Blackwell.
Sarrett, M. E., & McMurray, B. (2025). Timecourse of bottom-up and top-down language processing during a picture-based semantic priming task. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 40(1), 122–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2024.2409136
Scheepers, C. (2003). Syntactic priming of relative clause attachment: Persistence of structural configuration in sentence production. Cognition, 89, 179-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(03)00119-7
Schreiber, K. E., & McMurray, B. (2019). Listeners can anticipate future segments before they identify the current one. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(4), 1147–1166. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-019-01712-9
Sedivy, J. C., Tanenhaus, M. K., Chambers, C. G., & Carlson, G. N. (1999). Achieving incremental semantic interpretation through contextual representation. Cognition, 71(2), 109–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00025-6
Sekerina, I. A., Campanelli, L., & van Dyke, J. A. (2016). Using the visual world paradigm to study retrieval interference in spoken language comprehension. Frontiers in Psychology, 14(7), 873. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00873
Shen, W., Qu, Q., & Li, X. (2016). Semantic information mediates visual attention during spoken word recognition in Chinese: Evidence from the printed-word version of the visual-world paradigm. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 78(5), 1267–1284. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-016-1081-z
Shkuropatskaya, M. G., Vlasov, M. Zhukova, T. V., & Isaeva, I. P. (2020). Semantic and associative factors in lexical processing of polysemous bionyms in Russian: Evidence from an eye-tracking study in the visual world paradigm. PrePrint. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342702028
Soto, C., & Schmid, M. S. (2024). Carrot or parrot? An eye-tracking study on spoken word recognition in a language attrition context. The Language Learning Journal, 52(2), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2023.2294058
Soroli, E. (2024). How language influences spatial thinking, categorization of motion events, and gaze behavior: A cross-linguistic comparison. Language and Cognition, 16(4), 924–968. https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2023.66
Spivey, M. J., Tanenhaus, M. K., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (2002). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension: Effects of visual context on syntactic ambiguity resolution. Cognitive Psychology, 45(4), 447–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00503-0
Spivey, M. J., Tyler, M. J., Richardson, D. C., & Young, E. E. (2000). Eye movements during comprehension of spoken scene descriptions. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 487–492.
Stern, M.C., Madsen, C.N., Stover, L.M. et al. (2019). Language history attenuates syntactic prediction in L1 processing. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 3, 235–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809-019-00048-y
Sturt, P. (2003). The time course of the application of binding constraints in reference resolution. Journal of Memory and Language, 48(3), 542–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-596X(02)00536-3
Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (1995). Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 268(5217), 1632–1634. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.777786
Trueswell, J. C., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1994). Toward a lexicalist framework of constraint-based syntactic ambiguity resolution. In C. Clifton, Jr., L. Frazier, & K. Rayner (Eds.), Perspectives on sentence processing (pp. 155–179). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Trueswell, J. C., Sekerina, I., Hill, N. M., & Logrip, M. L. (1999). The kindergarten-path effect: Studying on-line sentence processing in young children. Cognition, 73(2), 89–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-0277(99)00032-3
Wei, Y., Mak, W. M., Evers-Vermeul, J., & Sanders, T. J. M. (2019). Causal connectives as indicators of source information: Evidence from the visual world paradigm. Acta Psychologica, 198, 102866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.102866
Xu, X., Ji, C., Li, T., & Pickering, M. J. (2025). The prediction of segmental and tonal information in Mandarin Chinese: An eye-tracking investigation. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 40(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2024.2395549
Zahner, K., Kutscheid, S., & Braun, B. (2019). Alignment of f0 peak in different pitch accent types affects perception of metrical stress. Journal of Phonetics, 74, 75–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wocn.2019.02.004
Zamuner, T. S., Morin-Lessard, E., Strahm, S., & Page, M. P. A. (2016). Spoken word recognition of novel words, either produced or only heard during learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 89, 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2015.10.003
Zhang, Z., & Zhang, Q. (2025). Linear incrementality in focus and accentuation processing during sentence production: Evidence from eye movements. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 18, Article 1523629. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2024.1523629
Zhao, Z., Ding, J., Wang, J., Chen, Y., & Li, X. (2024). The flexibility and representational nature of phonological prediction in listening comprehension: Evidence from the visual world paradigm. Language and Cognition, 16(2), 481–504. https://doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2023.38
Zhu, Y., & Grüter, T. (2025). Native speakers and learners of Mandarin predict upcoming arguments in dative constructions based on categorical and gradient verb constraints. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 28(4), 601–612. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728924000749
Yao, P., Hall, D., Borer, H., & Stockall, L. (2024). Dutch–Mandarin learners’ online use of syntactic cues to anticipate mass vs. count interpretations. Second Language Research, 40(4), 803–831. https://doi.org/10.1177/02676583231175106

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil

İngilizce

Konular

Bilişsel Dilbilimi

Bölüm

Derleme

Yazarlar

İpek Pınar Uzun ^*
0000-0003-3103-0758
Türkiye

Alper Kumcu
0000-0003-0844-3562
Türkiye

Yayımlanma Tarihi

30 Aralık 2025

Gönderilme Tarihi

9 Mayıs 2025

Kabul Tarihi

8 Temmuz 2025

Yayımlandığı Sayı

Yıl 2025 Cilt: 36 Sayı: 2

DOI

https://doi.org/10.18492/dad.1692960

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA96FH45PH

Kaynak Göster

RIS / Bibtex

APA

Uzun, İ. P., & Kumcu, A. (2025). Looking at Online Language Comprehension with the Visual World Paradigm: A Systematic and Cross-Linguistic Review of Three Decades. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 36(2), 185-223. https://doi.org/10.18492/dad.1692960